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By Jeremy McDermott BBC correspondent in Bogota

With his landslide victory in the May elections, Alvaro Uribe Velez became the first presidential candidate to win outright in the first round in a Colombian election.

Mr Uribe climbed to the top of the polls with his talk of getting tough with the Marxist guerrillas and their 38-year war on the state, which has reached unprecedented levels of intensity.

But this message does not sit well with the rebels of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), which have put a large contract out on his life and have tried to assassinate him three times in the last six months.

Colombia's presidential frontrunner speaks in public

Uribe has avoided death three times

In April, the guerrillas placed a bomb in a bus along the route Mr Uribe's campaign convoy was using in the Caribbean city of Barranquilla.

The bomb went off but the armour of Mr Uribe's vehicle saved him from harm. Sixteen passers-by were not so lucky. Three were killed and 13 wounded in the blast.

But Mr Uribe's relations with the FARC go back a long way, to 1983 when they gunned down his father in the family ranch in Antioquia.

"I hold no bitterness", he said before the elections, a small army of security guards crowding the hotel suite he occupied in the capital, and security ring thrown around the building. "I just want to serve Colombia."

And it is no small irony that it is the FARC that got Mr Uribe elected.

As the three-year peace process with the FARC broke down in February and guerrilla attacks increased, his popularity soared.

A bus travelling on the same route in northern Colombia was targeted

Three were killed in April's assassination attempt

President Pastrana tried the peaceful route and that only led to record levels of kidnapping, violence and extortion. The Colombians want to give war a chance.

"We gave the guerrillas a chance to negotiate, and they refused it," said Cristina Jimenez, 27, a teacher in Medellin, the heartland of Uribe support. "Let's see if they change their minds with a gun pressed to the heads."

The bespectacled 49-year old, a lawyer by training, a professional politician by instinct, obtained over 20 percentage points more than his nearest rival, the Liberal Party candidate and former Interior Minister, Horacio Serpa.

Mr Uribe's physical appearance, a slight bookish-looking man, educated at Oxford and Harvard, contrasts with his right-wing message and his political history.

President Pastrana tried the peaceful route and that only led to record levels of kidnapping, violence and extortion - the Colombians want to give war a chance.

His political opponents have plenty of ammunition against him, but none has hit the target with the electorate.

They have tried to paint him as the candidate of the right-wing paramilitaries that were responsible for killing more than 1,000 unarmed people last year through their policy of massacres and assassinations of suspected guerrillas, trade unionists, left-wing intellectuals, human rights workers and journalists.

Most of the raw material for such accusations comes from Mr Uribe's term as governor of his home province of Antioquia from 1995-1998.

During this time he set up a network of rural security co-operatives, known as Convivirs. At least two of these later became fronts for the paramilitaries.

Many Colombians tired of Pastrana's peace talks which resulted in more violence and extortion

Pastrana's initiatives have not worked

Not only is Mr Uribe unapologetic, but plans to create a national militia of some one million citizens to help bring state presence to the half of the country under the control of the warring factions.

During his period as governor of Antioquia the FARC suffered one of their worst ever reverses.

Under a combined military paramilitary onslaught they were driven out of the rich banana-growing region of Uraba and they have been trying to get back ever since.

There is little doubt the paramilitaries support Mr Uribe's candidacy, but they would support anyone with his message of a get-tough policy against their hated enemies the Marxist guerrillas, and there is no evidence that the hard-line candidate has any links with them.

There has been the smear of drugs trafficking laid at his door, and there is evidence that some of his friends have been involved in this shady world, but nothing has ever stuck to him.

And he has pledged to get tough with all the propagators of illegal violence in Colombia, the guerrillas, the paramilitaries, the drugs traffickers and common criminals.

"The main proposal is security with democracy. Security for all Colombians," he said.

Many have turned to Uribe because of the peace failure

Colombians lament the rise in violence

What he lacks in a sense of humour, he compensates with intensity. "I will protect all Colombians regardless of whether the attacks come from guerrillas or paramilitaries."

It would be wrong to label Mr Uribe a one-track album. His manifesto is complete and complex, revealing a lawyer's relish for detail. And his administrative ability has been proven as mayor of Medellin and governor of Antioquia.

But the shadow of Colombia's extreme and bloody right-wing waits to bask in his glory. And one thing is certain, Colombia faces yet more bloodshed, and the civil conflict is certain to enter its fifth decade.

The Colombian military has proven itself unable to react to, let alone contain the spreading violence.

It was the FARC, through their endorsement of current president, Andres Pastrana, and his peace proposals that secured that president's election.

It seems with their unrelenting attacks and atrocities they did the same for Mr Uribe.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 17:43 GMT

US missile test fails

Earlier tests have had mixed success

The Pentagon has announced the failure of its latest test of an interceptor missile - part of President George W Bush's missile defence programme.

The defensive missile - supposed to hit an oncoming long-range enemy missile - did not separate from its booster rocket, the Pentagon said in a statement.

We do not have an intercept

Rick Lehner, Air Force Lieutenant

Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Rick Lehner said it was "frustrating and disappointing" that the test had failed as a result of a glitch that had little to do with advanced missile technology.

This was the third missile test to fail of a total of eight carried out so far.

In June, the United States withdrew from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty it signed with the former Soviet Union, seeing it as constraining its ability to test new anti-missile defences.

Despite international criticism, Washington has insisted on developing the programme to defend against incoming missiles from what it calls "rogue states".

Second case

In Wednesday's test, a Minuteman II intercontinental ballistic missile carrying the dummy enemy missile was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California at 0826 GMT, the statement said.

About 20 minutes later, the rocket carrying the defensive missile was launched about 7,725 kilometres (4,800 miles) away from Kwajalein Atoll in the Republic of the Marshall Islands.

But the $100m missile failed to disengage from the booster. A similar fault occurred in July 2000.

The missile shield is in the planning stage

"We do not have an intercept," said Colonel Lehner of the Pentagon's Missile Defense Agency.

The Pentagon statement said two new rocket designs were being developed and would be tested next year.

In June, the US started work on the construction of a test site for the missile defence system.

A set of silos is being built in Alaska to house interceptors capable of destroying missiles fired by "rogue states" like North Korea, Iraq or Iran.

The silos, initially classified as test facilities, are expected to be fully operational by 2007.

There has been considerable scepticism that the eventual goal, of a comprehensive shield capable of protecting the US from any missile attack, will ever be achievable.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 11:37 GMT

Fighting Burma's drugs trade

Burmese soldiers and civilians destroy opium poppy field during the country's narcotic destruction campaign in Shan state, 2000

Burma's junta has pledged drug crackdowns before

Burma's ruling generals and their Wa allies on the country's north eastern border have pledged big cuts in opium production, hoping to head off international criticism. Larry Jagan, the BBC's Burma analyst, reports.

Bao Yuxiang, the notorious drug warlord and commander of the United Wa State Army, says he will dramatically cut production of opium poppy in areas under his control within the next 12 months.

Bao Yuxiang and his brothers command a 20,000-strong army

"I have promised to make the Wa areas drug-free by 2005 and I will," he told the BBC in a recent interview in his home-base of Pangshang, on the border with China.

The Wa are one of the main poppy growers in Burma's Golden Triangle - situated in the north-west tip of the country bordering, China, Laos and Thailand.

UN drug officials now estimate that most of the world's illicit heroin originates in this inhospitable and mountainous region.

Profitable crop

The Wa have been involved in the drugs trade for decades, largely because of the difficulty of growing any other cash crops, and lack of industry.

Since 1989 the Wa have had a ceasefire agreement with the Burmese military junta.

During much of that time opium production has sky-rocketed.

But in the last few years poppy cultivation has declined dramatically, say UN drug control officials.

Mr Bao, who along with his three brothers commands the 20,000-strong United Wa State Army (UWSA), says that over the past two years, the Wa have begun to resist the temptation to continue growing poppy.

UN financial assistance has been used for crop substitution projects, including fruit trees and tea plantations, and to set up small-scale industries like tea production and slate manufacturing factories.

"In some areas the Wa have reduced the amount of land under poppy cultivation by up to 80%," said an independent Australian researcher, Jeremy Milsome, who has just completed several months of detailed surveys in UWSA areas.

"Last year, overall the UWSA managed an average reduction of poppy production of more than 30%," he said.

Most independent assessments of opium production in the Wa areas also show a major reduction in the amount of poppy that is cultivated.

Allegations continue

But despite this, the Wa are still blamed by Thai army chiefs for millions of amphetamines that flood into Thailand every year, and by Western governments like the United States for most of the heroin on the streets of Europe and North America.

These are allegations which Mr Bao vigorously denies.

"It makes me fed up and angry... I'm tired of hearing it. It's nonsense," he said.

But the allegations continue, and with the new growing season at its height, there is increasing international concern about the production of opium in Burma's Golden Triangle.

The Burmese authorities are now insisting that poppy cultivation this season will be half as much as last year.

"We hope to cut opium production by 50% in the current production year [2002-3]," said the head of Burma's drug suppression committee, police colonel Hkam Awng.

Farmers need help to grow cash crops instead

"There will be a dramatic reduction in poppy cultivation in the coming year," the Burmese Foreign Minister Win Aung told the BBC. "You will see!"

'Too fast, too soon'

But UN officials are worried about the possible impact of this planned rapid decrease in poppy cultivation.

They fear that as a consequence, poor farmers who are dependant on growing the illicit drug will suffer.

"A 50% reduction is revolutionary and we should be happy with that," said the head of the United Nations Drugs Control Programme in Rangoon, Jean-Luc Lemahieu.

"But it's too fast, too soon. I don't see enough income coming in for the opium poppy farmers and I'm concerned that we'll have a humanitarian crisis on our hands as a result."

UN officials fear that if there are no viable substitute cash crops or income generating schemes for the poor farmers, the result will be that they have no alternative but to return to poppy production the following year, as happened in Afghanistan.

And while the Burmese authorities continue to insist they are doing all they can to reduce opium production, the reality is that amphetamine tablets, known as crazy medicine or ya baa, continue to flood across Burma's borders, especially into Thailand.

Thai military officials are warning that Thailand is facing an invasion of more than a billion tablets next year - most of which will be produced in the Golden Triangle.

"The precursor chemicals needed for the manufacture of amphetamines are not produced in Burma and are illegal here," Win Aung told the BBC.

"They come from India, Thailand and China. More needs to be done to stop the smuggling of these chemicals across our borders."

But as many experts point out, the only way to effectively combat drug trafficking is to suppress the demand for it as well as cut its production.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 18:58 GMT

Chile agrees trade pact with US

Main pedestrian shopping street in Santiago, Chile

The deal should abolish tariffs on 85% of consumer goods

Chile and the United States have agreed a free trade pact after 11 years of talks, both countries have said.

We have reached a good agreement with the United States

President Ricardo Lagos

Chile's President Ricardo Lagos said the trade deal would "mean more jobs, more work, more development, more growth" for the South American country.

US Trade Representative Robert Zoellick said the pact would abolish tariffs on 85% of consumer and industrial goods.

Negotiators from both countries held a marathon overnight session in Washington on Tuesday to iron out final disagreements.

Farmers to benefit

"At dawn today a very important step has been accomplished," President Lagos said in the Chilean capital, Santiago.

"We have reached a good agreement with the United States, and Chile will have a free trade accord with the US".

Mr Zoellick told a press conference in Washington that the pact would bring the abolition of 75% of Chilean tariffs on US agricultural goods within four years.

All agricultural tariffs between the two countries will be scrapped after 12 years.

Mr Zoellick was flanked by Chile's foreign minister, Soledad Alvear, who led the Chilean delegation.

The negotiating teams reached agreements on labour, the environment, agriculture and financial services, the Chilean newspaper La Tercera de la Hora reported on its web site.

Praise for Chile

Before the pact can be signed, further talks must take place to polish the final legal wording but these are expected to be a formality.

The negotiations began in the early 1990s and were stepped up two years ago as part of US attempts to create a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) embracing the whole of North and South America.

Chile signed a free trade deal with the European Union earlier this year.

Earlier this month, Chile was praised by Alan Greenspan, chairman of the US central bank, for its responsible approach to economic and fiscal policies.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has also given Chile a good report for its response to the risk of economic crisis in South America after Argentina sank into political turmoil.

Chile is suffering from weak economic growth: the IMF has cut its predictions for this year to 2.6% from an earlier forecast of 3%.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 10:27 GMT

China's heavy price for free trade

It took China 15 years to join the WTO



By Alex Ritson BBC World Service business reporter

It is a year since China joined the World Trade Organisation (WTO).

In that time, foreign companies are estimated to have invested some $50bn (£32bn) in the country in their quest for access to 1.3 billion consumers.

But opinions differ on how much progress has really been made towards integrating the world's biggest population into the mainstream of international commerce.

For China, the success of membership of the WTO is summed up with a set of numbers.

Reforming zeal

5,000 tariffs have been slashed.

There have been 2,300 improvements to bureaucratic rules and regulations.

And import duties have been cut by an average of 25%.

China's Foreign Trade Minister, Shi Guangsheng, says his country's efforts to overhaul clunky state enterprises and tackle endemic local protectionism have proved that China is a responsible new member of the WTO.

As such, China is worthy of the respect of its peers, he says.

Counting the cost

But those reforms have come with a heavy price.

Millions of people working in heavy industry have lost their jobs.

Imports of cheap foreign food have unnerved farmers and prompted a mass migration from the countryside into China's crowded cities.

Most investors acknowledge that China has made great progress in the area of economic reform.

However, many remain sceptical about the level of commitment to implement the changes at ground level.

Frustrated foreigners

Only last month, two foreign insurers, Japan's Dai-ichi Mutual Life and Germany's Gerling AG, announced they were pulling out of China because of excessive regulation.

Agriculture has turned into a major irritant for the US, which had hoped for big sales of farm goods to China.

New rules on genetically modified foods threaten $1bn in US soybean sales, while other products are hampered by a secretive import quota scheme.

And foreign banks complain they are allowed to open only one new branch a year - which then has to operate under restrictive rules.

Caught in a trap

The communist government of the world's largest developing economy appears to be caught between challenges.

It is wary of creating instability by opening markets too quickly.

But it is duty-bound to do so by the very organisation it campaigned so vigorously to join.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 11:24 GMT

IMF: Israel can cope without US aid

Palestinians at an Israeli border crossing

The Palestinian uprising has cost Israel dearly

Israel could cope with its worst recession in 50 years without US aid, the International Monetary Fund has said in its annual report on the country.

"It is clear that the US aid will help, particularly in containing the fiscal deficit and stabilising the economy," IMF European Assistant Director Masahiko Takeda said.

"But the Finance Ministry is ready to cope with the situation without counting on US aid," he added.

Israel's economy has been battered by the global slowdown, hi-tech slump and a two-year Palestinian uprising that has scared off tourists, slashed revenues and sent defence costs soaring.

"We see considerable risk that revenue (next year) will fall short of the budgeted amount," the report said.

Israel is reportedly seeking $8bn (£5.1bn) in loan guarantees and $4bn in defence and other grants over 10 years from the US, the IMF's biggest shareholder.

Cutting interest rates

Israel is expected to overshoot its 3.9% budget deficit target substantially this year.

Mr Takeda said the government should address the causes of the deficit rather than relying on US aid to plug the gap.

In unusually direct advice to Israel's central bank, the Fund called on the Bank of Israel to use "every opportunity" to cut interest rates from 9.1%.

It also criticised what appeared to be a politically inspired 2 percentage point rate cut last December, which it said led to a sharp depreciation of the shekel, a surge in inflation and a threat to financial stability.

The IMF said it was confident the government was committed to pushing through the budget, due by 31 December, without compromising on spending cuts.

Disagreements about funding for Jewish settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip led to the dissolution of Prime Minister Ariel Sharon's government in November.

Elections are due to be held on 28 January.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 06:58 GMT

IMF repents over Malaysian criticism

The IMF oppose Malaysia's currency peg

The International Monetary Fund has praised Malaysia's economic performance, after a short recession last year, and admitted it was wrong to oppose fixing the currency to the dollar.

"The Malaysian economy has entered a recovery phase and appears to be well placed to benefit from a global recovery," the Fund said after annual meetings in the country.

Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad

Mahatir has plenty to smile about

There was a broad economic recovery with unemployment below 4%, inflation below 2% and factories running at 80% of capacity, the fund said.

It expects 3.5% economic growth this year - from 0.7% in 2001 - even though private investment remains weak.

The IMF said Malaysia's astute handling of its economy showed it was wrong to advise against a currency peg.

"Directors commended the Malaysian authorities for pursuing a judicious macroeconomic policy strategy that has helped them weather the impact of the global slowdown, allayed earlier concerns of some directors about the sustainability of the exchange rate, and laid the foundations for a positive economic outlook," the report said.

Malaysian solution

Malaysia fixed its currency to protect it from speculators in direct contravention of the IMF's advice during the Asian financial crisis between 1997 to 1999.

As a result it has fared much better economically than most of its neighbours who followed IMF policy at the time.

"Directors noted that Malaysia's strengthened fundamentals are supportive of the exchange rate peg as a stability anchor, and that the value of the ringgit does not appear to be misaligned," the IMF report said.

The ringgit is fixed at 3.8 to the US dollar.

But it has again recommended the currency should be floated.

"While they saw no imminent need to reconsider the peg at this time, many other directors were of the view, however, that a carefully prepared move toward a more flexible exchange rate regime would broaden Malaysia's options over the medium term."

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 06:18 GMT

Japanese export drive continues

Demand for electronic products drives Japanese trade

Japan's current account surplus shot up 23.5% in October, from a year earlier, spurred on by strong demand from Asia for electronic products.

The current account - the measure of trade in goods and services - rose to 936bn yen ($7.6bn), the Ministry of Finance said on Wednesday, in-line with analyst's forecasts.

Last month there was a 438% jump in Japan's trade surplus with the rest of Asia to 339.4bn yen.

The ministry said on Wednesday Japan's total exports in October rose 13.9% from a year earlier, led by semiconductors, electronics goods and motor vehicles.

The trade surplus jumped 71.1% year-on-year, but that was largely due to falls after last year's 11 September attacks on the US.

Economic boost

The seventh straight rise in monthly exports, and strong preliminary figures for November, has raised hopes Japan might be cushioned from weak demand from the US.

The Japanese government has also been talking down the yen to boost exports.

Ministry officials said a rise in imports might also indicate a recovery in the Japanese economy.

Japan reported economic expansion of 0.8% from July to September, the third consecutive quarter of growth.

In September the current account surplus fell 6.8%, which was blamed costly aircraft purchases.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 19:04 GMT

Lebanese banks bail out government

Post-war reconstruction has led to big debts

Lebanese banks have agreed to buy about $4bn (£2.5bn) in interest-free government bonds in an attempt to help the country deal with its crippling debt burden.

Lebanon's public sector has debts of about $30bn - or almost 180% of gross domestic product - much of which was built up in the course of development and reconstruction after the 1975-90 civil war.

Last month, Lebanon won pledges for $4bn in low-interest loans from a number of international donors.

Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri has said that without the injection of funds Lebanon would be forced to default next year on its debt payments.

Without taking into account the latest moves, Lebanon was paying an average of 13% interest on its borrowings - a level commercial lenders have judged reflects the risk of default.

That level is expected to fall slightly, as Lebanon uses fresh funds to retire its most costly debt.

Payments down $400m

The Lebanese central bank said banks would buy a series of two-year euro-denominated bonds and six-month Lebanese pound treasury bills.

"The contribution arises because they would be investing, in special treasury bills that bear a zero interest rate, up to 10% of their deposits in Lebanese pounds and foreign currencies," said central bank first vice-governor Nasser al-Saidi.

"Ten per cent of that net deposit base would be approximately $4bn."

This would reduce Lebanon's debt servicing obligations by $400m a year, he added.

The chief of the country's banking association was reported as saying the banks wanted to do their part to help the country's finances.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 17:02 GMT

US Airways agrees pilot deal

US Airways hopes to emerge from bankruptcy next year

US Airlines has agreed a tentative deal with its pilots on a cost-cutting plan which could save the airline $100m (£63m) a year.

The move is part of the airline's restructuring plan aimed at keeping the company in business.

Last month the firm cut 2,500 jobs as part of its cost-cutting measures.

US Airlines filed for bankruptcy protection in August, after the airline was hit by downturn in air travel following the 11 September terrorist attacks.

Reorganisation on track

US Airways said the pay agreement still needed to be ratified by the Air Line Pilots' Association (ALPA) executive council.

Under the deal there would be some temporary wage cuts in return for productivity improvements.

"Our pilot union negotiators worked with us in the interest of identifying additional cost savings, and preserving jobs and pensions, and we greatly appreciate their efforts," said US Airways president and chief executive David Siegel.

The airline said it hoped the deal would lead to agreements with other unions, and would also help it in its bid for a $1bn loan guarantee from the Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB).

The ATSB was set up to help US airlines in the wake of the 11 September attacks.

US Airways added that it still intended to put forward its reorganisation plan on 20 December.

First of many?

US Airways, the sixth biggest airline in the United States, was the first major US carrier to file for bankruptcy following the terror attacks.

It lost more than $2.1bn in the past financial year.

Under the Chapter 11 bankruptcy procedure, the company can continue operating while it attempts to restructure its business and return to financial health.

Last week United Airlines, the number two carrier in the US, also filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.

It was forced into the move after a bid to secure a $1.8bn loan guarantee from the ATSB was rejected.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 14:15 GMT

EU in search of natural boundaries

Orthodox Christmas service at Christ the Savior Cathedral in Moscow

Orthodox Christians were traditionally excluded from Europe



By Jan Repa BBC Central and Eastern Europe analyst

Consider a photograph of upper or upper-middle class Europeans, taken a century ago.

Strange country, where the waiter speaks five languages, and the minister of culture can only communicate in Polish

Jean Paul Sartre about Poland

They could be Germans, or Spaniards, or Poles, or Hungarians. Or Russians, for that matter.

They dress alike, sport the same hairstyles, and carry themselves in a similar way.

One imagines them travelling across Europe in comfortable Pullman trains, staying at more or less identical hotels, listening to the same kind of music, reading similar books.

Most are deeply patriotic - even chauvinistic - but in a similar way.

Stalin's regime in Moscow was copied across Eastern Europe

They discuss women's rights, socialism, international terrorism, the latest bout of sabre-rattling between Paris and Berlin, and human rights abuses in China.

Mail trains bring the latest editions of French, German and Swiss newspapers to the towns of Transylvania and Eastern Galicia.

There are electric trams and telephones. But beyond the city limits, the countryside has barely changed since the 17th century.

Ideological divide

Half a century later, Europe has been cut in two by the "Iron Curtain".

Joseph Stalin runs an isolationist "national-socialist" regime in Moscow. His henchmen run similar outfits across Central and Eastern Europe.

French philosopher Satre called Poland a "strange country"

Everything Western is vilified. People with education have been killed, imprisoned, driven into exile, silenced - or are collaborating.

Owning a shortwave radio is an offence. In London, BBC executives wonder whether it's worth broadcasting to the region in local languages.

The French philosopher and Communist Party member Jean-Paul Sartre travels to Poland. "Strange country", he observes, "where the waiter speaks five languages, and the minister of culture can only communicate in Polish".

Shared experiences

From the Western perspective, "Europeans" share a set of historical experiences: Roman law and civic culture; medieval Catholicism, the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, the 18th century Enlightenment, and the emergence of liberal democracy.

There have been some wobbles along the way - but even communism can be claimed as a Western invention.

While Western Europe's post-war "social-market" system successfully reconciles social solidarity with free enterprise, Russia - it is claimed - oscillates between collectivist tyranny and gangster capitalism.

On this reading of European history, the Calvinist aristocrats of 16th century Lithuania could be regarded as "Westerners" - and the gothic and baroque architecture of Vilnius as marking a Western cultural outpost.

Exclusion

Identity is reinforced by exclusion. Traditionally, one "excluded" group has been the Orthodox Christians of Eastern Europe and the Balkans.

Many regarded Central Europe as a 'no-man's land' between Germans and Russians

They are held to have missed out on many of Europe's formative experiences - not least the Western habit of regarding the relationship between rulers and the ruled as a carefully-crafted contract, legally binding on both sides.

This has traditionally allowed Hungarians and Poles to rationalise their political misfortunes as an heroic defence of "Western values" - and to despise their neighbours.

Until the 19th century, Orthodox Romanians wrote their language in the Cyrillic alphabet.

Their adoption of Latin script was part of a deliberate effort to rebrand themselves as a Western-oriented nation.

The Czechs might assert their distinctive "Slav" identity against the traditionally dominant Germans - but, in dealings with their eastern Slovak neighbours, they saw themselves as purveyors of enlightened, Western, secular values.

'No-man's land'

Until the Second World War, most Central Europeans had little experience of Russia. Russian literature was an exotic minority interest.

The same cannot be said for Germany. When not proclaiming a distinctive "Germanic" tradition, Germans have tended to portray themselves as a "bridge" between the sophisticated but decadent Latin world to the West and the backward "Slavs" to the east.

Germany's bulk - both physical and cultural - has often led West Europeans to regard Central Europe as a "no-man's land" between Germans and Russians - despite the powerful influence of Italian and French culture in the region.

Debates about European identity may appear academic.

But as the European Union prepares to take on members from the former Soviet bloc, some leading politicians are beginning to ask aloud, where the EU's natural boundaries lie - and whether certain countries should be excluded in advance.

BBC -- Monday, 9 December, 2002, 18:49 GMT

In pictures: Spain's clean-up marathon

Hundreds of extra Spanish soldiers have joined the operation to clean up oil from the sunken Prestige tanker.

Fresh fears have also emerged that more of the 60,000 tons of oil inside the wrecked tanker may still escape, confounding hopes that the cargo would congeal at the low temperatures, and high pressure of the sea bed.

Spanish Navy ship sends a landing craft with the troops

Some 700 soldiers were taken to the Galician coast by sea

Spanish soldiers disembark from the landing craft

The reinforcements joined more than 1,000 soldiers already working round the clock

Volunteers working in the Galicia region

Up to 10,000 people are taking part in the clean-up

Volunteers spent a three-day holiday weekend removing oil sludge

A volunteers worker takes pause during clean up

Officials say the majority of slicks are still floating off the coast of the north-western region of Galicia

Thousands of birds have been covered in oil

Football players display shirts with the phrase, in the Galician dialect, Everyone with the Sea - reference to the oil spill

Growing anger has spilled over into sport - here Celta de Vigos footballers wear shirts bearing a message in Galician

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 17:57 GMT

South Africa police seize 'ton' of explosives

There has been a spate of bomb attacks in the country

South African police have arrested nine suspected right-wing extremists and seized almost 1,000 kilograms of explosives during a series of raids.

Police believe at least five of those detained are connected to a series of recent bomb attacks in the country.

The explosives... were clearly designed to kill and create mayhem

Sally de Beer
Police spokeswoman

They had been on the run for more than a month, officials said.

An extreme right-wing group Boeremag, meaning Boer Force, had warned of a new spate of attacks over the Christmas season, as part of a campaign to bring down the ANC Government.

The five will be charged with treason and sabotage, police spokesman Selby Mokaba was quoted as saying.

However, he did not identify them specifically as Boeremag members.

"The explosives... were clearly designed to kill and create mayhem," said police spokeswoman Sally de Beer.

Three of those arrested are brothers.

Condemned

The BBC's Barnaby Phillips in Johannesburg says many Afrikaners fear that their language, culture and economic strength are being eroded in the new multi-racial South Africa.

But he says the vast majority have been quick to condemn this apparent resurgence of right-wing extremism.

The extremists want to overthrow the government

The police did not say what type of explosives had been seized. Firearms, assault rifles and guns were also found in the raids.

The arrests and seizures were made near Pretoria and in Limpopo province, in the north of the country.

One person was killed and another injured on 30 October in a bomb attack in the black township of Soweto which police have blamed on the Boeremag.

About 20 right-wingers have been charged this year with plotting to overthrow the government, treason and terrorism.

Police have stepped up operations since last month, searching farms and seizing small amounts of explosives.

Many of those arrested are former members of the South African army or police.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 20:22 GMT

Colombian leader murder plot foiled

Explosives experts examine the wreck of a car bomb that went off on Monday

Uribe has pledged to tackle left and right-wing rebels

Colombia's President Alvaro Uribe abruptly dropped a scheduled public appearance in the city of Medellin on Wednesday after reports that rebels were planning to assassinate him.

Mr Uribe - who has already survived 11 attempts on his life - was whisked away to an army base by the presidential protection team.

At the same time, the authorities announced that they had thwarted a devastating rebel attack on the capital, Bogota, after defusing a wave of powerful car bombs.

We have averted an unprecedented terror attack against Bogota

Defence Minister Martha Lucia Ramirez

Police said they had arrested six suspected members of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) in connection with the bombing campaign.

Mr Uribe was elected to office earlier this year promising to take a hard line against left-wing rebels and right-wing paramilitary groups.

Beforehand, there were several attempts on his life - the most serious when FARC guerrillas placed a bomb in a bus on the route Mr Uribe's convoy was taking.

In August, rebels attacked the presidential palace and congress with mortars as Mr Uribe was being sworn in.

Remote control

Officials said the rebels had apparently planned to attack Mr Uribe during his scheduled appearance at Medellin's Intercontinental Hotel.

The president, who was described as appearing unruffled by the turn of events, was flown to the base of the army's Fourth Brigade.

A bomb on Monday exploded near a police post

"You must never lose your tranquillity", he told reporters.

"But you must be prudent, since no-one is exempt from this nonsense."

The authorities announced on Wednesday that they had averted "a major terror attack" against Bogota.

"These five bombs could have done unimaginable damage," said Defence Minister Martha Lucia Ramirez.

In the last two days, five car bombs said to have been packed with 250 kilograms of explosive have been defused.

Police said the vehicles were equipped with remote control systems allowing them to be guided to targets believed to include supermarkets, bus stops and police barracks.

Civilian victims

Alvaro Uribe's father was killed by FARC rebels

On Monday, a car bomb went off in a car park at a grocery store, injuring more than 60 people.

The BBC's Jeremy McDermott says the FARC have long held a grudge against Mr Uribe since he was governor of the troubled province of Antioquia in the mid-1990s, accusing him of supporting right-wing death squads.

Thousands of people - mainly civilians - are killed each year in Colombia's long-running civil war which pits the government against the rebels and right-wing paramilitaries.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 13:22 GMT

Pressure grows on Boston cardinal

A demonstration in Boston calling for Cardinal Bernard Law to resign

Demonstrators have been out in force

A Boston Catholic group claiming 25,000 members is to decide on Wednesday whether to call for the resignation of Boston's embattled Cardinal Bernard Law.

On Monday, 58 priests signed a letter asking the cardinal to resign in what Catholic theologians are describing as a "revolt" or "rebellion".

Cardinal Law has gone to Rome

Cardinal Law remains in Rome, fuelling speculation that he is discussing the possibility of either resigning or declaring the Boston archdiocese bankrupt in the face of some 450 lawsuits alleging child abuse by priests.

As the temperature in Boston approached boiling point, a Catholic diocese in neighbouring New Hampshire headed off criminal prosecution with an historic declaration.

The diocese of Manchester, New Hampshire, announced on Tuesday that it is granting the state sweeping oversight rights into how it handles accusations of inappropriate behaviour by clergy.

Criminal charges

The state's attorney general was within days of filing criminal charges of child endangerment against the diocese.

I can't imagine what brought the Manchester diocese to this admission

Canon law professor James Coriden

Legal experts say it would have been the first time ever that criminal charges had been brought against a Catholic diocese, a move that a professor of church law described as "mind-boggling".

"The possibility of criminal action against a diocese, that's big-time stuff. I can't imagine what brought [the Manchester diocese] to this admission," Washington Theological Union professor James Coriden told The New York Times newspaper.

New Hampshire's Bishop John McCormack said his diocese "fully acknowledges and accepts responsibilities for failures in our system that contributed to the endangerment of children".

The diocese has agreed to annual audits by the state attorney general for the next five years and promised to report accusations of sexual abuse to legal authorities.

Dozens accused

The state had been investigating allegations of sexual abuse of children by more than 50 priests over a period of more than 40 years.

The settlement does not affect ongoing lawsuits - of which there are about 80 - or the possibility of charges against individual priests.

The Manchester diocese has so far agreed to pay about $7.7m to settle more than 100 lawsuits.

Voice of the Faithful, a Boston lay group working under the slogan "Keep the faith, change the church", votes on Wednesday on whether to call for Cardinal Law to go.

It will also decide on two separate resolutions, one asking the Pope to appoint a new bishop, and another demanding that the US Conference of Bishops keep its promise to hold bishops accountable.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 09:59 GMT

US warns of nuclear response

The White House says no options have been ruled out

Washington has said it is prepared to use nuclear weapons if necessary to respond to any attack with weapons of mass destruction (WMD) against itself or its allies.

"The United States will continue to make clear that it reserves the right to respond with overwhelming force - including through resort to all our options," a White House strategy document released on Tuesday said.

The new document has been interpreted as a warning to Iraq

It is believed to be the first update on America's WMD policy since 1993.

BBC Washington correspondent Ian Pannell says that while the new document only restates existing policy, it has been widely interpreted as a direct warning to Iraq.

US officials said only that the passage was meant to put emphasis on the role of deterrence against such an attack.

'Essential part of defence'

Copies of the six-page strategy document were released to the media ahead of its official unveiling.

Called the National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction, the document is to be delivered to Congress on Wednesday.

It says the threat of overwhelming force is an essential part of defence.

It also includes a commitment to boost programmes aimed at containing the damage from any chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear attack.

The document also says that some states support terrorists and already have weapons of mass murder; it contends that they seek even more "as tools of coercion and intimidation".

"For them, these are not weapons of last resort, but militarily useful weapons of choice intended to overcome our nation's advantages in conventional forces and to deter us from responding to aggression against our friends."

Iraqi denial

In 1991, President George Bush Senior warned Baghdad that it would face the severest consequences if it attacked US forces with chemical or biological weapons.

Iraq has used chemical weapons against its own Kurdish population and is believed to have also used them in its war with Iran.

President George W Bush has repeatedly vowed to strip Baghdad of any weapons of mass destruction by force if Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein does not bow to a UN disarmament ultimatum.

UN inspectors are currently in Iraq to seek out any illegal arms held by the regime.

Iraq denies possessing banned weapons but has been accused by America of lying.

BBC -- Wednesday, 11 December, 2002, 03:29 GMT

North Korea's Scud missiles

US officials believe that Scud missiles found on an intercepted cargo ship in the Arabian Sea came from North Korea. BBC News Online looks at North Korea's missile stockpile.

Expanding reach

North Korea was receiving tactical missiles from the Soviet Union as far back as 1969, but its first Scuds reportedly came via Egypt in 1976.

Egypt is believed to have supplied North Korea with Scud-B missiles in return for its support against Israel in the Yom Kippur War.

North Korea's missiles

Scud-B: range 300 km, payload 1,000 kg

Scud-C: range 500 km, payload 7600-800 kg

Scud-D (Nodong): range 1,000-1,300 km, payload: 700-1,000 kg

Taepodong 1: range 1,500-2,000 km, payload: 1,000 kg

By 1984, North Korea was building its own Scud-Bs and since then has developed two new versions, the Scud-C and Scud-D (or Nodong), as well as a super-missile based on Scud technology, the Taepodong 1.

North Korea is believed to be working on modifications of the Taepodong with a range of up to 8,000 kilometres (4,971 miles).

The Scud-B, which has been gradually phased out by the Russian military since its introduction in the 1960s, was originally intended by Soviet designers to carry nuclear or conventional warheads.

The Scud is commonly fired from a heavy launch vehicle. Its warhead is permanently attached to the missile body and has a high-velocity impact.

Click here to see North Korea's missile strike range

But North Korean designers are believed to have modified the missile to carry chemical and bacteriological warheads.

The successful test-firing in August 1998 of a Taepodong 1, which flew over Japan, sparked serious concern in the West.

It is believed to be a two-stage missile composed of different Scuds.

Proliferation

Since its first reported use in combat during the Arab-Israeli war of 1973, the Scud has proven a deadly, if wildly inaccurate, weapon.

It was used by both sides during the devastating "war of the cities" in the Iran-Iraq conflict; then by Iraq during the Gulf War, when nearly 90 missiles were fired.

The impoverished Communist state has a thriving missile industry

America lost 28 servicemen when one Scud hit a barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, and military exp

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